(Chapter 8) A Role of and design instructional material

A Role of and design instructional material

curriculum development in language teaching (Jack Richard) - Resume

Teaching materials is the most important things in language programs. Whether the teacher uses a textbook, materials from the institutions, or his or her own materials, instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much of language prac­tice in the classroom. In the case of inexperienced teacher, materials may also serve as a form of teacher training. They provide ideas on how to plan and teach lessons as well as formats that teachers can use. Much of the language teaching today could not take place without the extensive use of commercial materials. These may take the form of (a) printed materials such as books, workbooks, work­sheets, or readers; (b) non print materials such as cassette or audio materi­als, videos, or computer-based materials; (c) materials that comprise both print and non-print sources such as self-access materials and materials on the Internet. In addition, materials not designed for instructional use such as magazines, newspapers, and TV materials may also play a role in the cur­riculum.

Cunningsworth (1995,7) summarizes the role of materials (particularly course books) in language teaching as:

·      a resource for presentation materials (spoken and written)

·      a source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction

·      a reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and so on

·      a source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities

·      a syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives that have already been determined)

·      a support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in confidence

Dudley-Evans and Sl John (1998, 170-171) suggest that for teachers of ESP courses, materials serve the following functions:

·      as a source of language

·      as a learning support

·      for motivation and stimulation

·      for reference

Authentic versus created materials

             Authentic materials refers to the use in teaching of texts, photographs, video selections, and other teaching resources that were not spe­cially prepared for pedagogical purposes. Created materials refers to textbooks and other specially developed instructional resources. Some have argued that authentic materials are preferred over created materials, because they contain authentic language and reflect real-world uses of language compared with the contrived content of much created material.

             The advantages of authentic materials are (Phillips and Shettlesworth 1978; Clarke 1989; Peacock 1997) They have a positive effect on learner motivation because they are in­trinsically more interesting and motivating than created materials, They provide authentic cultural information about the target culture. Ma­terials can be selected to illustrate many aspects of the target culture, in­cluding culturally based practices and beliefs and both linguistic and non-linguistic behavior, They provide exposure to real language rather than the artificial texts found in created materials that have been specially written to illustrate par­ticular grammatical rules or discourse types, They relate more closely to learners' needs and hence provide a link be­tween the classroom and students' needs in the real world, They relate more closely to learners' needs and hence provide a link be­tween the classroom and students' needs in the real world.

             However, critics of the use of authentic materials are Created materials can also be motivating for learners, Authentic materials often contain difficult language, Created materials may be superior to authentic materials because they are generally built around a graded syllabus, Using authentic materials is a burden for teachers.

Textbook

Textbooks are used in different ways in language programs. The advantages of textbook are They provide structure and a syllabus for a program, They help standardize instruction, They maintain quality, They provide a variety of learning resources, They are efficient, They can provide 'effective language models and input, They can train teachers, They are visually appealing. However, there are also po­tential negative effects of commercial textbooks. Those are they may contain inauthentic language, they may distort content, they may not reflect students' needs. they can deskill teachers, they are expensive. In making decisions about the role of commercial textbooks in a pro­gram, the impact of textbooks on the program, on teachers, and on learners has to be carefully assessed.

Evaluating textbooks

             Before evaluating a textbook, information is needed on the following issues. The role of the textbook in the program (Will it be used with small classes or large ones?), The teachers in the program (Are teachers free to adapt and supplement the book?), The learners in the program (What do learners typically expect in a textbook?).

Cunningsworth (1995) proposes four criteria for evaluating textbooks, par­ticularly course books:

1.      They should correspond to learners' needs. They should match the aims and objectives of the language learning program.

2.  They should reflect the uses (present or future) that learners will make of the language. Textbooks should be chosen that will help equip stu­dents to use language effectively for their own purposes.

3.      They should take account of students' needs as learners and should fa­cilitate their learning processes, without dogmatically imposing a rigid "method."

They should have a clear role as a support for learning. Like teachers, they mediate between the target language and the learner.

             Cunnings worth (1995) presents a checklist for textbook evaluation and se­lection  organized under the following categories. These are aims and approaches, design and organization, language content, skills, topic, methodology, teachers' books practical considerations.

              Dudley-Evans and St John (1998,173) suggest that operating with so many categories is often not very practical and it is easier to use two or three key criteria in the first instance and then apply others if or when needed.  They propose the following questions to ask when selecting ESP materials:

1.     Will the materials stimulate and motivate?

2.  To what extent does the material match the stated learning objectives and your learning objectives? (It is rare for a single set of published material to match the exact learning needs of any one ESP learner group, and ac­tivities do not always meet the stated objectives.)

3.     To what extent will the materials support the learning process?

Based on the factors in each situations, questions specific to that sit­uations need to be generated around the main issues involved in textbook evaluation and selection. There are program factors (questions relating to concerns of the program), teacher factors (questions relating to teacher concerns), learner factors (questions relating to learner concerns), content factors (questions relating to die content and organization of me material in the book), pedagogical factors (questions relating to the principles underlying the materials and the pedagogical design of the materials, including choice of activities and exercise types).

Adapting textbooks

Most teachers are not creators of teaching materials but providers of good materials. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, 173) suggest that a good provider of materials will be able to:

1.      select appropriately from what is available

2.  be creative with what is available

3.  modify activities to suit learners' needs

4.  supplement by providing extra activities (and extra input)

Commercial textbooks can seldom be used without some form of adap­tation to make them more suitable for the particular context in which they will be used. This adaptation may take a variety of forms. These are Modifying content, Adding or deleting content, Reorganizing content, Addressing omissions, Modifying tasks, Extending tasks.

Preparing materials for a program

In cases where institutionally developed materials are being considered for a language program, both the advantages and the disadvantages of setting up a materials development project need to be carefully considered at the outset. Advantages of building a materials development component into a program include: Relevance: Materials can be produced that are directly relevant to_ stu­dents' and institutional needs and that reflect local content, issues, and con­cerns. Develop expertise: Developing materials can help develop expertise among staff, giving them a greater understanding of the characteristics of effective materials. Reputation: Institutionally developed materials may enhance the reputa­tion of the institution by demonstrating its commitment to providing mate­rials developed specifically for its students. Flexibility: Materials produced within the institution can be revised or adapted as needed, giving them greater flexibility than a commercial course book.

Disadvantages also need to be considered before embarking on materials development. Cost: Quality materials take time to produce and adequate staff times as well as resources need to be allocated to such a project. Quality: Teacher-made materials will not normally have the same stan­dard of design and production as commercial materials and hence may not present the same image as commercial materials. Training: To prepare teachers for materials writing projects, adequate training should be provided. Materials’ writing is a specialized skill and potential materials writers need the opportunity to develop the necessary skills. Workshops can be developed for this purpose, as well as the creation of writing teams that contain a balance of relevant expertise.

It is also important to understand the nature of materials development and the processes that are typically involved if quality materials are to be cre­ated. Shulman goes on to describe the transformation phase of this process as consisting of:

·         Preparation: critical interpretation and analysis of texts, structuring and segmentation, development of a curricular repertoire, and clarification of purposes

·         Representation: use of a representational repertoire- that includes analo­gies, metaphors, examples, demonstrations, explanations, and so forth

·         Selection: choice from among an instructional repertoire that includes modes of teaching, organizing, managing, and arranging

·         Adapting and tailoring to student characteristics: consideration of con­ceptions, preconceptions, misconceptions, and difficulties; language, cul­ture, and motivations; and social class, gender, age, ability, aptitude, in­terests, self-concepts, attention.

Rowntree (1997, 92) suggests that good materials do many of the things that a teacher would normally do as part of his or her teaching. They should: arouse the learners' interest, remind them of earlier learning, tell them what they will be learning next, explain new learning content to them, relate these ideas to learners' previous learning, get learners to think about new content, help them get feedback on their learning, encourage them to practice, make sure they know what they are supposed to be doing, enable them to check their progress, and help them to do better.

No matter what types of materials are being prepared decisions concerning input are involved. Input refers to anything that initiates the learning process and that students respond to in some way in using the materials. The fol­lowing are examples of input questions in the design of different kinds of materials: Grammar materials, Listening materials, Reading materials, Writing materials, and speaking materials.

Managing a materials writing project

Materials writing projects are of different scope and dimensions. Some may be the responsibility of an individual teacher; others may be assigned to a team of writers. The management of a team-based writing project involves addressing the following issues: Selecting the project team, planning the number of stages involved, Identifying reviewers, planning the writing schedule, Piloting the materials, Design and production.

Monitoring the use of materials

No matter what form of materials teachers make use of, whether they teach from textbooks, institutional materials, or teacher-prepared materials, the materials represent plans for teaching. They do not represent the process of teaching itself. As teachers use materials they adapt and transform them to suit the needs of particular groups of learners and their own teaching styles.

Monitoring may take the following forms: Observation: classroom visits to see how teachers use materials and to find out how materials influence the quality of teaching and interaction that occurs in a lesson, Feedback sessions: group meetings in which teachers discuss their expe­rience with materials, Written reports: the use of reflection sheets or other forms of written feed­back in which teachers make brief notes about what worked well and what did not work well, or give suggestions on using the materials, Reviews: written reviews by a teacher or group of teachers on their expe­riences with a set of materials and what they liked or disliked about them, Students' reviews: comments from students on their experience with the materials.

Having considered the different processes and elements that constitute the development and implementation of a language curriculum and the dynamics of the curriculum in action, we can now consider the curriculum as a whole and how it can be monitored, reviewed, and evaluated.

 

Reference:
Richards, Jack C. 2001. Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. USA: Cambrigde Univeesity Press.

Arranged by:
Tyas Mulyono (153221244)
Rully Cahyo (153221243)
Bidhuha Rahmatana (153221242)